Buddha
Gautama Buddha (c. 563/480 – c. 483/400 BCE), , take these dates to be 624 – 544 BCE; in Thailand it is 623 – 543 BCE. Besides monastic acceptance of these dates, the above mentioned governments also accept these dates as shown by their issuance of commemorative stamps for the 2500 Jayanthi of Buddha's Parinibbana in 1956 and subsequent commemorative issuances for later Jayanthi celebrations.}} also known as Siddhārtha Gautama (सिद्धार्थ गौतम) in or Siddhattha Gotama (शिद्धत्थ गोतम) in , Shakyamuni (i.e. "Sage of the s") Buddha, or simply the Buddha, after the title of , was a ( ), , , , and religious leader on whose teachings was founded. He is believed to have lived and taught mostly in the northeastern part of sometime between the 6th and 4th centuries . Gautama taught a between sensual indulgence and the severe asceticism found in the movement common in his region. He later taught throughout other regions of eastern India such as and . Gautama is the primary figure in Buddhism. He is believed by Buddhists to be an teacher who attained full and shared his insights to help end rebirth and . Accounts of his life, discourses and rules are believed by Buddhists to have been summarised after his death and memorized by his followers. Various collections of teachings attributed to him were passed down by and about 400 years later. Historical Siddhārtha Gautama Scholars are hesitant to make unqualified claims about the historical facts of the Buddha's life. Most people accept that the Buddha lived, taught, and founded a monastic order during the era during the reign of ( , or c. 400 BCE), the ruler of the empire, and died during the early years of the reign of , who was the successor of Bimbisara, thus making him a younger contemporary of , the Jain . While the general sequence of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" is widely accepted, there is less consensus on the veracity of many details contained in traditional biographies. The times of Gautama's birth and death are uncertain. Most historians in the early 20th century dated his lifetime as c. 563 BCE to 483 BCE. More recently his death is dated later, between 411 and 400 BCE, while at a symposium on this question held in 1988, the majority of those who presented definite opinions gave dates within 20 years either side of 400 BCE for the Buddha's death. : "...as is now almost universally accepted by informed Indological scholarship, a re-examination of early Buddhist historical material, ..., necessitates a redating of the Buddha's death to between 411 and 400 BCE..." * 405: Richard Gombrich * Around 400: See the consensus in the essays by leading scholars in . * According to Pali scholar , a life span for the Buddha of c. 480 to 400 BCE (and his teaching period roughly from c. 445 to 400 BCE) "fits the archaeological evidence better". See also Notes on the Dates of the Buddha Íåkyamuni.}} These alternative chronologies, however, have not been accepted by all historians. , speculating that it may possible be a Buddhist shrine. If so, this may push back the Buddha's birth date. Archaeologists caution that the shrine may represent pre-Buddhist tree worship, and that further research is needed. Richard Gombrich has dismissed Coningham's speculations as "a fantasy", noting that Coningham lacks the necessary expertise on the history of early Buddhism. Geoffrey Samuels notes that several locations of both early Buddhism and Jainism are closely related to -worship, that several Yakshas were "converted" to Buddhism, a well-known example being , and that several Yaksha-shrines, where trees were worshipped, were converted into Buddhist holy places. }} Historical context The evidence of the early texts suggests that Siddhārtha Gautama was born into the clan, a community that was on the periphery, both geographically and culturally, of the eastern Indian subcontinent in the 5th century BCE. One of his usual names was "Sakamuni" or "Sakyamunī" ("Sage of the Shakyas"). It was either a small republic, or an , and his father was an elected chieftain, or oligarch. According to the Buddhist tradition, Gautama was born in , now in modern-day Nepal, and raised in the Shakya capital of Kapilvastu, which may have been either in what is present day , Nepal or , India. , the stories of the former lives of the Buddha, Gautama was born in , present-day Nepal. In the mid-3rd century BCE the Emperor determined that Lumbini was Gautama's birthplace and thus installed a pillar there with the inscription: "...this is where the Buddha, sage of the Śākyas (Śākyamuni), was born." Based on stone inscriptions, there is also speculation that Lumbei, Kapileswar village, , at the east coast of India, was the site of ancient Lumbini. Hartmann discusses the hypothesis and states, "The inscription has generally been considered spurious (...)" He quotes Sircar: "There can hardly be any doubt that the people responsible for the Kapilesvara inscription copied it from the said facsimile not much earlier than 1928." Kapilavastu was the place where he grew up: Gethin does not give references for this statement.}} * Warder: "The Buddha ... was born in the Sakya Republic, which was the city state of Kapilavastu, a very small state just inside the modern state boundary of Nepal against the Northern Indian frontier. * Walshe: "He belonged to the Sakya clan dwelling on the edge of the Himalayas, his actual birthplace being a few miles north of the present-day Northern Indian border, in Nepal. His father was, in fact, an elected chief of the clan rather than the king he was later made out to be, though his title was raja—a term which only partly corresponds to our word 'king'. Some of the states of North India at that time were kingdoms and others republics, and the Sakyan republic was subject to the powerful king of neighbouring Kosala, which lay to the south". * The exact location of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either in , northern India, or , present-day Nepal. The two cities are located only fifteen miles from each other. See also and }} According to Buddhist tradition, he obtained his enlightenment in , gave his first sermon in , and died in . Apart from the s, the Buddha's lifetime coincided with the flourishing of influential of thought like , , , and . records sixty-two such schools of thought. In this context, a śramaṇa refers to one who labors, toils, or exerts themselves (for some higher or religious purpose). It was also the age of influential thinkers like , , , , , and , as recorded in , whose viewpoints the Buddha most certainly must have been acquainted with. Indeed, and , two of the foremost disciples of the Buddha, were formerly the foremost disciples of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta, the sceptic; and the Pali canon frequently depicts Buddha engaging in debate with the adherents of rival schools of thought. There is also philological evidence to suggest that the two masters, and , were indeed historical figures and they most probably taught Buddha two different forms of meditative techniques. Thus, Buddha was just one of the many śramaṇa philosophers of that time. In an era where holiness of person was judged by their level of asceticism, Buddha was a reformist within the śramaṇa movement, rather than a reactionary against Vedic Brahminism. Historically, the life of the Buddha also coincided with the during the rule of from about 517/516 BCE. This occupation of the areas of and , which was to last for about two centuries, was accompanied by the introduction of Achaemenid religions, reformed or early , to which Buddhism might have in part reacted. In particular, the ideas of the Buddha may have partly consisted of a rejection of the "absolutist" or "perfectionist" ideas contained in these Achaemenid religions. Earliest sources " (��������, the ) and " - " ( , "Sage of the ") in , on 's (circa 250 BCE).}} No written records about Gautama were found from his lifetime or from the one or two centuries thereafter. In the middle of the 3rd century BCE, several (reigned c. 269–232 BCE) mention the Buddha, and particularly 's commemorates the Emperor's pilgrimage to as the Buddha's birthplace. Another one of his edicts ( ) mentions the titles of several texts, establishing the existence of a written Buddhist tradition at least by the time of the . These texts may be the precursor of the . Dhammika:"There is disagreement amongst scholars concerning which Pali suttas correspond to some of the text. Vinaya samukose: probably the Atthavasa Vagga, Anguttara Nikaya, 1:98–100. Aliya vasani: either the Ariyavasa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, V:29, or the Ariyavamsa Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, II: 27–28. Anagata bhayani: probably the Anagata Sutta, Anguttara Nikaya, III:100. Muni gatha: Muni Sutta, Sutta Nipata 207–21. Upatisa pasine: Sariputta Sutta, Sutta Nipata 955–75. Laghulavade: Rahulavada Sutta, Majjhima Nikaya, I:421." }} inscription: Bhagavato Sakamunino Bodho (���������� ���������������� �������� "The illumination of the Blessed Sakamuni"), circa 100 BCE.}} "Sakamuni" in also mentioned in the reliefs of , dated to circa 100 BCE, in relation with his illumination and the , with the inscription Bhagavato Sakamunino Bodho ("The illumination of the Blessed Sakamuni"). The oldest surviving Buddhist manuscripts are the , reported to have been found in or around near in eastern Afghanistan and now preserved in the . They are written in the using the script on twenty-seven s and date from the first century BCE to the third century CE. On the basis of evidence, Indologist and Pali expert says that some of the Pali suttas have retained very archaic place-names, syntax, and historical data from close to the Buddha's lifetime, including the which contains a detailed account of the Buddha's final days. Hinüber proposes a composition date of no later than 350–320 BCE for this text, which would allow for a "true historical memory" of the events approximately 60 years prior if the Short Chronology for the Buddha's lifetime is accepted (but also reminds that such a text was originally intended more as than as an exact historical record of events). Traditional biographies (left) and (right). , mid-1st century CE, .}} Biographical sources The sources for the life of Siddhārtha Gautama are a variety of different, and sometimes conflicting, traditional biographies. These include the , , , and the Nidānakathā. Of these, the Buddhacarita is the earliest full biography, an epic poem written by the poet in the first century CE. The Lalitavistara Sūtra is the next oldest biography, a / biography dating to the 3rd century CE. The Mahāvastu from the tradition is another major biography, composed incrementally until perhaps the 4th century CE. The biography of the Buddha is the most exhaustive, and is entitled the Abhiniṣkramaṇa Sūtra, and various Chinese translations of this date between the 3rd and 6th century CE. The Nidānakathā is from the tradition in Sri Lanka and was composed in the 5th century by . From canonical sources come the , the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14), and the Achariyabhuta Sutta (MN 123), which include selective accounts that may be older, but are not full biographies. The Jātakas retell previous lives of Gautama as a , and the first collection of these can be dated among the earliest Buddhist texts. The Mahāpadāna Sutta and Achariyabhuta Sutta both recount miraculous events surrounding Gautama's birth, such as the bodhisattva's descent from the into his mother's womb. Nature of traditional depictions miraculously giving birth to Siddhārtha. , . , , India. }} In the earliest Buddhist texts, the s and , the Buddha is not depicted as possessing (sabbaññu) nor is he depicted as being an eternal transcendent (lokottara) being. According to , ideas of the Buddha's omniscience (along with an increasing tendency to deify him and his biography) are found only later, in the and later commentaries or texts such as the Mahāvastu. In the Sandaka Sutta, the Buddha's disciple outlines an argument against the claims of teachers who say they are all knowing while in the Tevijjavacchagotta Sutta the Buddha himself states that he has never made a claim to being omniscient, instead he claimed to have the "higher knowledges" ( ). The earliest biographical material from the Pali Nikayas focuses on the Buddha's life as a , his search for enlightenment under various teachers such as and his forty-five-year career as a teacher. Traditional biographies of Gautama generally include numerous miracles, omens, and supernatural events. The character of the Buddha in these traditional biographies is often that of a fully transcendent (Skt. lokottara) and perfected being who is unencumbered by the mundane world. In the Mahāvastu, over the course of many lives, Gautama is said to have developed supramundane abilities including: a painless birth conceived without intercourse; no need for sleep, food, medicine, or bathing, although engaging in such "in conformity with the world"; omniscience, and the ability to "suppress karma". Nevertheless, some of the more ordinary details of his life have been gathered from these traditional sources. In modern times there has been an attempt to form a of Siddhārtha Gautama's life by omitting the traditional supernatural elements of his early biographies. Andrew Skilton writes that the Buddha was never historically regarded by Buddhist traditions as being merely human: ; and in the he states that he could live for an were he asked to do so. }} The ancient Indians were generally unconcerned with chronologies, being more focused on philosophy. Buddhist texts reflect this tendency, providing a clearer picture of what Gautama may have taught than of the dates of the events in his life. These texts contain descriptions of the culture and daily life of ancient India which can be corroborated from the , and make the Buddha's time the earliest period in for which significant accounts exist. British author writes that although there is very little information that can be considered historically sound, we can be reasonably confident that Siddhārtha Gautama did exist as a historical figure. Michael Carrithers goes a bit further by stating that the most general outline of "birth, maturity, renunciation, search, awakening and liberation, teaching, death" must be true. Biography Conception and birth , Nepal, a holy shrine also for many non-Buddhists.}} The Buddhist tradition regards , in present-day Nepal to be the birthplace of the Buddha. He grew up in . The exact site of ancient Kapilavastu is unknown. It may have been either , , in present-day India, or , in present-day Nepal. Both places belonged to the Sakya territory, and are located only apart. Gautama was born to a family, in a moderate Vedic culture at the central Ganges Plain area, where the shramana-traditions developed. This area had a moderate Vedic culture, where the Kshatriyas were the highest , in contrast to the Brahmanic ideology of – , where the Brahmins had become the highest varna. Both the Vedic culture and the shramana tradition contributed to the emergence of the so-called around the start of the Common Era. }} the son of , "an elected chief of the ", whose capital was Kapilavastu, and who were later annexed by the growing Kingdom of during the Buddha's lifetime. Gautama was the . His mother, (Māyādevī), Suddhodana's wife, was a n princess. Legend has it that, on the night Siddhartha was conceived, Queen Maya dreamt that a with six white tusks entered her right side, and ten later Siddhartha was born. As was the Shakya tradition, when his mother Queen Maya became pregnant, she left Kapilavastu for her father's kingdom to give birth. However, her son is said to have been born on the way, at Lumbini, in a garden beneath a . The day of the Buddha's birth is widely celebrated in Theravada countries as . is called Buddha in Nepal, Bangladesh, and India as he is believed to have been born on a full moon day. Various sources hold that the Buddha's mother died at his birth, a few days or seven days later. The infant was given the name Siddhartha (Pāli: Siddhattha), meaning "he who achieves his aim". During the birth celebrations, the hermit seer journeyed from his mountain abode and announced that the child would either become a great king ( ) or a great . By traditional account, this occurred after Siddhartha placed his feet in Asita's hair and Asita examined the birthmarks. Suddhodana held a naming ceremony on the fifth day, and invited eight scholars to read the future. All gave a dual prediction that the baby would either become a great king or a great holy man. , the youngest, and later to be the first other than the Buddha, was reputed to be the only one who unequivocally predicted that Siddhartha would become a . While later tradition and legend characterised Śuddhodana as a , the of the (Solar dynasty) of (Pāli: Okkāka), many scholars think that Śuddhodana was the elected chief of a tribal confederacy. Early texts suggest that Gautama was not familiar with the dominant religious teachings of his time until he left on his religious quest, which is said to have been motivated by existential concern for the human condition. The state of the Shakya clan was not a monarchy and seems to have been structured either as an , or as a form of republic. The more egalitarian gana-sangha form of government, as a political alternative to the strongly hierarchical kingdoms, may have influenced the development of the śramanic and Buddhist , where monarchies tended toward . Early life and marriage Siddhartha was brought up by his mother's younger sister, . By tradition, he is said to have been destined by birth to the life of a prince and had three palaces (for seasonal occupation) built for him. His father, said to be King Śuddhodana, wishing for his son to be a great king, is said to have shielded him from religious teachings and from knowledge of human . While Śuddhodana has traditionally been depicted as a king, and Siddhartha as his prince, more recent scholarship suggests the were in-fact organised as a semi-republican oligarchy rather than a monarchy. When he reached the age of 16, his father reputedly arranged his marriage to a cousin of the same age named (Pāli: Yasodharā). According to the of several schools, and numerous , she gave birth to a son, named . Siddhartha is said to have spent 29 years as a prince in . Although his father ensured that Siddhartha was provided with everything he could want or need, Buddhist scriptures say that the future Buddha felt that material wealth was not life's ultimate goal. Renunciation and ascetic life , he is accompanied by numerous guards, loving couples, and who have come to pay homage; , }} . , 8th century}} At the age of 29, Siddhartha left his palace to meet his subjects. Despite his father's efforts to hide from him the sick, aged and suffering, Siddhartha was said to have seen an old man. When his charioteer explained to him that all people grew old, the prince went on further trips beyond the palace. On these he encountered a diseased man, a decaying , and an . These depressed him, and he initially strove to overcome ageing, sickness, and death by living the life of an ascetic. Accompanied by Channa and riding his horse , Gautama quit his palace for the life of a . It's said that "the horse's hooves were muffled by the gods" to prevent guards from knowing of his departure. Gautama initially went to and began his ascetic life by begging for alms in the street. After King Bimbisara's men recognised Siddhartha and the king learned of his quest, Bimbisara offered Siddhartha the throne. Siddhartha rejected the offer but promised to visit his kingdom of first, upon attaining enlightenment. He left Rajagaha and practised under two hermit teachers of meditation. After mastering the teachings of (Skr. Ārāḍa Kālāma), he was asked by Kalama to succeed him. However, Gautama felt unsatisfied by the practice, and moved on to become a student of with (Skr. Udraka Rāmaputra). With him, he achieved high levels of meditative consciousness and was again asked to succeed his teacher. But, once more, he was not satisfied, and again moved on. Awakening . . , , India. }} in , India, where Gautama Buddha attained under the (left)}} According to the early Buddhist texts, after realising that meditative was the right path to , but that extreme didn't work, Gautama discovered what Buddhists know as being, the —a path of moderation away from the extremes of and self-mortification, or the , as described in the , which is regarded as the first discourse of the Buddha. In a famous incident, after becoming starved and weakened, he is said to have accepted milk and from a village girl named . Such was his emaciated appearance that she wrongly believed him to be a spirit that had granted her a wish. in representing the stage of his }} Following this incident, Gautama was famously seated under a tree—now known as the —in , India, when he vowed never to arise until he had found . and four other companions, believing that he had abandoned his search and become undisciplined, ceased to stay with him, and went to somewhere else. After a reputed 49 days of meditation, at the age of 35, he is said to have attained , and became known as the Buddha or "Awakened One" ("Buddha" is also sometimes translated as "The Enlightened One"). According to some sutras of the Pali canon, at the time of his awakening he realised complete into the , thereby attaining from , the endless cycle of rebirth, suffering and dying again. According to scholars, this story of the awakening and the stress on "liberating insight" is a later development in the Buddhist tradition, where the Buddha may have regarded the practice of as leading to nirvana and moksha. * * }} Nirvana is the extinguishing of the "fires" of desire, hatred, and ignorance, that keep the cycle of suffering and rebirth going. Nirvana is also regarded as the "end of the world", in that no personal identity or boundaries of the mind remain. In such a state, a being is said to possess the , belonging to every Buddha. According to a story in the Āyācana Sutta (Samyutta Nikaya VI.1)—a scripture found in the and other —immediately after his awakening, the Buddha debated whether or not he should teach the to others. He was concerned that humans were so overpowered by ignorance, greed, and hatred that they could never recognise the path, which is subtle, deep and hard to grasp. However, in the story, convinced him, arguing that at least some will understand it. The Buddha relented and agreed to teach. Formation of the sangha in , India, site of the first teaching of the Buddha in which he taught the to his first five disciples}} Monastery, , India, Where the Buddha delivered majority of his discourses}} After his awakening, the Buddha met —two merchant brothers from the city of in what is currently Afghanistan—who became his first lay disciples. It is said that each was given hairs from his head, which are now claimed to be enshrined as in the Temple in , Burma. The Buddha intended to visit , and his former teachers, and , to explain his findings, but they had already died. He then traveled to the near (Benares) in northern India, where he set in motion what Buddhists call the by delivering his first sermon to the five companions with whom he had sought enlightenment. Together with him, they formed the first }}: the company of Buddhist monks. All five become , and within the first two months, with the conversion of and fifty-four of his friends, the number of such arahants is said to have grown to 60. The conversion of three brothers named Kassapa followed, with their reputed 200, 300 and 500 disciples, respectively. This swelled the sangha to more than 1,000. Travels and teaching , , 2nd century CE, Ostasiatisches Kunst-Museum}} For the remaining 45 years of his life, the Buddha is said to have traveled in the , in what is now , , and southern Nepal, teaching a diverse range of people: from nobles to servants, murderers such as , and cannibals such as Alavaka. Although the Buddha's language remains unknown, it's likely that he taught in one or more of a variety of closely related Middle Indo-Aryan dialects, of which may be a standardisation. The sangha traveled through the subcontinent, expounding the dharma. This continued throughout the year, except during the four months of the rainy season when ascetics of all religions rarely traveled. One reason was that it was more difficult to do so without causing harm to animal life. At this time of year, the sangha would retreat to monasteries, public parks or forests, where people would come to them. , , India where the was held}} The first vassana was spent at when the sangha was formed. After this, the Buddha kept a promise to travel to , capital of , to visit King . During this visit, and were converted by , one of the first five disciples, after which they were to become the Buddha's two foremost followers. The Buddha spent the next three seasons at Veluvana Bamboo Grove monastery in Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha. Upon hearing of his son's awakening, Suddhodana sent, over a period, ten delegations to ask him to return to Kapilavastu. On the first nine occasions, the delegates failed to deliver the message and instead joined the sangha to become arahants. The tenth delegation, led by Kaludayi, a childhood friend of Gautama's (who also became an arahant), however, delivered the message. Now two years after his awakening, the Buddha agreed to return, and made a two-month journey by foot to Kapilavastu, teaching the dharma as he went. At his return, the royal palace prepared a midday meal, but the sangha was making an alms round in Kapilavastu. Hearing this, Suddhodana approached his son, the Buddha, saying: The Buddha is said to have replied: Buddhist texts say that Suddhodana invited the sangha into the palace for the meal, followed by a dharma talk. After this he is said to have become a . During the visit, many members of the royal family joined the . The Buddha's cousins and became two of his five chief disciples. At the age of seven, his son also joined, and became one of his ten chief disciples. His half-brother also joined and became an arahant. Of the Buddha's disciples, Sariputta, , , Ananda and Anuruddha are believed to have been the five closest to him. His ten foremost disciples were reputedly completed by the quintet of , , Rahula, and . In the fifth vassana, the Buddha was staying at Mahavana near when he heard news of the impending death of his father. He is said to have gone to Suddhodana and taught the dharma, after which his father became an arahant. The king's death and cremation were to inspire the creation of an order of nuns. Buddhist texts record that the Buddha was reluctant to ordain women. His foster mother , for example, approached him, asking to join the sangha, but he refused. Maha Pajapati, however, was so intent on the path of awakening that she led a group of royal Sakyan and Koliyan ladies, which followed the sangha on a long journey to Rajagaha. In time, after Ananda championed their cause, the Buddha is said to have reconsidered and, five years after the formation of the sangha agreed to the ordination of women as nuns. He reasoned that males and females had an equal capacity for awakening. But he gave women additional rules ( ) to follow. Mahaparinirvana (death) . . , , India. }} According to the of the Pali canon, at the age of 80, the Buddha announced that he would soon reach , or the final deathless state, and abandon his earthly body. After this, the Buddha ate his last meal, which he had received as an offering from a blacksmith named . Falling violently ill, Buddha instructed his attendant to convince Cunda that the meal eaten at his place had nothing to do with his passing and that his meal would be a source of the greatest merit as it provided the last meal for a Buddha. Mettanando and argue that the Buddha died of , a symptom of old age, rather than food poisoning. The precise contents of the Buddha's final meal are not clear, due to variant scriptural traditions and ambiguity over the translation of certain significant terms; the tradition generally believes that the Buddha was offered some kind of pork, while the tradition believes that the Buddha consumed some sort of truffle or other mushroom. These may reflect the different traditional views on and the precepts for monks and nuns. (Kushinara).}} suggests that Theravadins would take suukaramaddava (the contents of the Buddha's last meal), which can translate literally as pig-soft, to mean "soft flesh of a pig" or "pig's soft-food", that is, after , a soft food favoured by pigs, assumed to be a . He argues (also after Neumann) that as "plant names tend to be local and dialectical", as there are several plants known to have suukara-'' (pig) as part of their names, and as Pali Buddhism developed in an area remote from the Buddha's death, ''suukaramaddava could easily have been a type of plant whose local name was unknown to those in Pali regions. Specifically, local writers writing soon after the Buddha's death knew more about their flora than Theravadin commentator who lived hundreds of years and hundreds of kilometers remote in time and space from the events described. Unaware that it may have been a local plant name and with no Theravadin prohibition against eating animal flesh, Theravadins would not have questioned the Buddha eating meat and interpreted the term accordingly. , Zenyōmitsu-Temple Museum, Tokyo}} According to Buddhist tradition, the Buddha died at Kuśināra (present-day , India), which became a pilgrimage centre. Ananda protested the Buddha's decision to enter parinirvana in the abandoned jungles of of the kingdom. The Buddha, however, is said to have reminded Ananda how Kushinara was a land once ruled by a righteous wheel-turning king and the appropriate place for him to die. The Buddha then asked all the attendant s to clarify any doubts or questions they had and cleared them all in a way which others could not do. They had none. According to Buddhist scriptures, he then finally entered parinirvana. The Buddha's final words are reported to have been: "All composite things ( ) are perishable. Strive for your own liberation with diligence" (Pali: 'vayadhammā saṅkhārā appamādena sampādethā'). His body was cremated and the s were placed in monuments or stupas, some of which are believed to have survived until the present. For example, the or "Dalada Maligawa" in Sri Lanka is the place where what some believe to be the is kept at present. .}} According to the Pāli historical chronicles of Sri Lanka, the }} and }}, the coronation of (Pāli: Asoka) is 218 years after the death of the Buddha. According to two textual records in Chinese ( and ), the coronation of Emperor Aśoka is 116 years after the death of the Buddha. Therefore, the time of Buddha's passing is either 486 BCE according to Theravāda record or 383 BCE according to Mahayana record. However, the actual date traditionally accepted as the date of the Buddha's death in Theravāda countries is 544 or 545 BCE, because the reign of Emperor Aśoka was traditionally reckoned to be about 60 years earlier than current estimates. In Burmese Buddhist tradition, the date of the Buddha's death is 13 May 544 BCE. whereas in Thai tradition it is 11 March 545 BCE. At his death, the Buddha is famously believed to have told his disciples to follow no leader. was chosen by the sangha to be the chairman of the , with the two chief disciples and having died before the Buddha. ( ).}} While in the Buddha's days he was addressed by the very respected titles Buddha, Shākyamuni, Shākyasimha, Bhante and Bho, he was known after his parinirvana nirvana as Arihant, Bhagavā/Bhagavat/Bhagwān, Mahāvira, Jina/Jinendra, Sāstr, Sugata, and most popularly in scriptures as Tathāgata. Relics After his death, Buddha's cremation relics were divided amongst 8 royal families and his disciples; centuries later they would be enshrined by into 84,000 stupas. Many supernatural legends surround the history of alleged relics as they accompanied the spread of Buddhism and gave legitimacy to rulers. , South Gate, Stupa no. 1, . }} Physical characteristics depiction of the Buddha from , Afghanistan; Victoria and Albert Museum, .}} An extensive and colourful physical description of the Buddha has been laid down in scriptures. A by birth, he had military training in his upbringing, and by Shakyan tradition was required to pass tests to demonstrate his worthiness as a warrior in order to marry. He had a strong enough body to be noticed by one of the kings and was asked to join his army as a general. He is also believed by Buddhists to have "the ". The Brahmin Sonadanda described him as "handsome, good-looking, and pleasing to the eye, with a most beautiful complexion. He has a godlike form and countenance, he is by no means unattractive." (D, I:115) "It is wonderful, truly marvellous, how serene is the good Gotama's appearance, how clear and radiant his complexion, just as the golden jujube in autumn is clear and radiant, just as a palm-tree fruit just loosened from the stalk is clear and radiant, just as an adornment of red gold wrought in a crucible by a skilled goldsmith, deftly beaten and laid on a yellow-cloth shines, blazes and glitters, even so, the good Gotama's senses are calmed, his complexion is clear and radiant." (A, I:181) A disciple named Vakkali, who later became an arahant, was so obsessed by the Buddha's physical presence that the Buddha is said to have felt impelled to tell him to desist, and to have reminded him that he should know the Buddha through the Dhamma and not through physical appearances. Although there are no extant representations of the Buddha in human form until around the 1st century CE (see ), descriptions of the physical characteristics of fully enlightened buddhas are attributed to the Buddha in the 's (D, I:142). In addition, the Buddha's physical appearance is described by to their son upon the Buddha's first post-Enlightenment return to his former princely palace in the non-canonical Pali devotional hymn, Narasīha Gāthā ("The Lion of Men"). Among the 32 main characteristics it is mentioned that Buddha has blue eyes. Nine virtues Recollection of nine virtues attributed to the Buddha is a common Buddhist meditation and devotional practice called . The nine virtues are also among the . The nine virtues of the Buddha appear throughout the , and include: : Buddho – : Sammasambuddho – : Vijja-carana-sampano – Endowed with higher knowledge and ideal conduct. : Sugato – Well-gone or Well-spoken. : Lokavidu – Wise in the knowledge of the . : Anuttaro Purisa-damma-sarathi – Unexcelled trainer of untrained people. : Satthadeva-Manussanam – Teacher of and humans. : Bhagavathi – : Araham – Worthy of homage. An is "one with taints destroyed, who has lived the holy life, done what had to be done, laid down the burden, reached the true goal, destroyed the fetters of being, and is completely liberated through final knowledge." Teachings , .}} Use of Brahmanical motifs In the Pali Canon, the Buddha uses many devices. For example, in 111, 92 and Vinaya i 246 of the , the Buddha praises the as the foremost sacrifice and the as the foremost meter: }} Tracing the oldest teachings One method to obtain information on the oldest core of Buddhism is to compare the oldest versions of the and other texts, such as the surviving portions of , , , , and the Chinese . The reliability of these sources, and the possibility of drawing out a core of oldest teachings, is a matter of dispute. According to Vetter, inconsistencies remain, and other methods must be applied to resolve those inconsistencies. the overview of early Buddhism by Tilmann Vetter, the philological work on the four truths by K.R. Norman, the textual studies by Richard Gombrich, and the research on early meditation methods by Johannes Bronkhorst. }} According to Schmithausen, there are three positions held by scholars of Buddhism: # "Stress on the fundamental homogeneity and substantial authenticity of at least a considerable part of the Nikayic materials." and . * According to A.K. Warder, in his 1970 publication "Indian Buddhism},"from the oldest extant texts a common kernel can be drawn out. According to Warder, c.q. his publisher: "This kernel of doctrine is presumably common Buddhism of the period before the great schisms of the fourth and third centuries BC. It may be substantially the Buddhism of the Buddha himself, although this cannot be proved: at any rate it is a Buddhism presupposed by the schools as existing about a hundred years after the parinirvana of the Buddha, and there is no evidence to suggest that it was formulated by anyone else than the Buddha and his immediate followers". * Richard Gombrich: "I have the greatest difficulty in accepting that the main edifice is not the work of a single genius. By "the main edifice" I mean the collections of the main body of sermons, the four Nikāyas, and of the main body of monastic rules." }} # "Scepticism with regard to the possibility of retrieving the doctrine of earliest Buddhism." }} # "Cautious optimism in this respect." * Johannes Bronkhorst: "This position is to be preferred to (ii) for purely methodological reasons: only those who seek may find, even if no success is guaranteed." * Donald Lopez: "The original teachings of the historical Buddha are extremely difficult, if not impossible, to recover or reconstruct." }} Dhyana and insight , CE.}} A core problem in the study of early Buddhism is the relation between dhyana and insight. Schmithausen notes that the mention of the four noble truths as constituting "liberating insight", which is attained after mastering the Rupa Jhanas, is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36. Earliest Buddhism According to Tilmann Vetter, the core of earliest Buddhism is the practice of , as a workable alternative to painful ascetic practices. }} Bronkhorst agrees that Dhyāna was a Buddhist invention, whereas Norman notes that "the Buddha's way to release ... was by means of meditative practices." Discriminating insight into transiency as a separate path to liberation was a later development. According to the Mahāsaccakasutta, from the fourth the Buddha gained . Yet, it is not clear what he was awakened to. According to Schmithausen and Bronkhorst, "liberating insight" is a later addition to this text, and reflects a later development and understanding in early Buddhism. The mentioning of the four truths as constituting "liberating insight" introduces a logical problem, since the four truths depict a linear path of practice, the knowledge of which is in itself not depicted as being liberating: }} Although (Sanskrit: Nirvāna) is the common term for the desired goal of this practice, many other terms can be found throughout the Nikayas, which are not specified. }} According to Vetter, the description of the Buddhist path may initially have been as simple as the term "the middle way". In time, this short description was elaborated, resulting in the description of the eightfold path. According to both Bronkhorst and Anderson, the became a substitution for prajna, or "liberating insight", in the suttas in those texts where "liberating insight" was preceded by the four jhanas. According to Bronkhorst, the four truths may not have been formulated in earliest Buddhism, and did not serve in earliest Buddhism as a description of "liberating insight". Gotama's teachings may have been personal, "adjusted to the need of each person." The (Sanskrit: anitya): That all things that come to have an end; * (Sanskrit: ): That nothing which comes to be is ultimately satisfying; * (Sanskrit: anātman): That nothing in the realm of experience can really be said to be "I" or "mine".}} may reflect Upanishadic or other influences. K.R. Norman supposes that these terms were already in use at the Buddha's time, and were familiar to his listeners. The was in origin probably a brahmanic term; but its usage may have been common to the Sramana traditions. Later developments In time, "liberating insight" became an essential feature of the Buddhist tradition. The following teachings, which are commonly seen as essential to Buddhism, are later formulations which form part of the explanatory framework of this "liberating insight": * The : that suffering is an ingrained part of existence; that the origin of suffering is craving for sensuality, acquisition of identity, and fear of annihilation; that suffering can be ended; and that following the is the means to accomplish this; * The Noble Eightfold Path: right view, right intention, right speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration; * : the mind creates suffering as a natural product of a complex process. Other religions of god in a traditional Hindu representation}} temple, .}} Some as the 9th of . However, Buddha's teachings deny the authority of the and the concepts of - . Consequently Buddhism is generally classified as a school (heterodox, literally "It is not so" ) in contrast to the six orthodox schools of Hinduism. The Buddha is regarded as a by the minority sect of Muslims—a sect considered deviant and rejected as by mainstream Islam. Some early Chinese Taoist-Buddhists thought the Buddha to be a reincarnation of . Disciples of the religion worship the Buddha as a major religious teacher. His image can be found in both their Holy See and on the home altar. He is revealed during communication with Divine Beings as son of their Supreme Being (God the Father) together with other major religious teachers and founders like , , and . The Christian is based on the Buddha. The name comes from the Sanskrit via Arabic Būdhasaf and Georgian Iodasaph. The only story in which St. Josaphat appears, Barlaam and Josaphat, is based on the life of the Buddha. Josaphat was included in earlier editions of the Roman Martyrology (feast day 27 November)—though not in the Roman Missal—and in the Eastern Orthodox Church liturgical calendar (26 August). In the ancient sect of , the Buddha is listed among the prophets who preached the word of God before . In Sikhism, Buddha is mentioned as the 23rd avatar of Vishnu in the , a composition in Dasam Granth traditionally and historically attributed to . In the , Buddha is regarded as one of the . Notes References Category:Religion